美国环保署关于氯乙烯危害的概述
灵丹妙药
2023-02-15 17:09
最近美国发生因为火车出轨引发的氯乙烯泄漏，媒体上关于氯乙烯危害性有些争论。我找了一下。美国环保署在前些年就发布过相关文件。这些文件发布时间远早于这次事故，感觉不应该有隐瞒。
氯乙烯是一个生产了很多年的物质，对其危害和毒性了解也比较深入。例如美国环保署发布的“TOXICOLOGICAL REVIEW OF VINYL CHLORIDE氯乙烯的毒理学研究进展”发布于2000年5月，但太长了，有197页。我找到了较短的一个，发布于2020年3月的一篇概述。这个文件只有6页。我试着翻译了一下。如果有错误，请大家指正。
按照EPA文件描述，氯乙烯是有甜味的，以前讲美国空气香甜的那位是不是吸了氯乙烯，自己还不知道。如果真是这样，赶紧去体检。
上述文件的链接如下，有兴趣的朋友可以自己下载阅读。
TOXICOLOGICAL REVIEW OF VINYL CHLORIDE Simple Search | NSCEP | US EPA https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.EXE?ZyActionL=Register&User=anonymous&Password=anonymous&Client=EPA&Init=1
Vinyl Chloride March 26 2020 https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/documents/vinyl_chloride_march_26_2020.pdf
Vinyl Chloride氯乙烯
75-01-4
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Hazard Summary危害总结
Most vinyl chloride is used to make polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic and vinyl products. Acute (short-term) exposure to high levels of vinyl chloride in air has resulted in central nervous system (CNS) effects, such as dizziness, drowsiness, and headaches in humans. Chronic (long-term) exposure to vinyl chloride through inhalation and oral exposure in humans has resulted in CNS effects and liver damage. Animal studies have reported effects on the liver, kidney, and CNS from chronic exposure to vinyl chloride. Vinyl chloride exposure, via inhalation, has been shown to increase the risk of a rare form of liver cancer, angiosarcoma of the liver, in humans. EPA has concluded that vinyl chloride is carcinogenic to humans by the inhalation and oral routes of exposure, and highly likely to be carcinogenic by the dermal route of exposure.
大多数氯乙烯被用于制造聚氯乙烯（聚氯乙烯）塑料和乙烯基产品。急性（短期）暴露于空气中高水平的氯乙烯会导致中枢神经系统（CNS）的影响，如人类的头晕、嗜睡和头痛。人类通过吸入和口服接触长期（长期）接触氯乙烯已导致中枢神经系统影响和肝脏损伤。动物研究已经报道了长期接触氯乙烯对肝脏、肾脏和中枢神经系统的影响。通过吸入接触氯乙烯，已被证明会增加人类患一种罕见的肝癌——肝血管肉瘤的风险。美国环境保护署得出的结论是，氯乙烯通过吸入和口服接触途径对人体致癌，而通过皮肤接触途径很有可能对人体致癌。
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Please Note: The main sources of information for this fact sheet are the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) Integrated Risk Information System and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry's (ATSDR's) Toxicological Profile for Vinyl Chloride. (1,2)
请注意：本简报的主要信息来源是美国环境保护署（EPA）的综合风险信息系统和有毒物质和疾病登记处（ATSDR）的氯乙烯毒物学概况。(1,2)
Uses用途
• Most of the vinyl chloride produced is used to make polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a material widely used in automotive parts, packaging products, pipes, construction materials, furniture, and a variety of other products. (2)
大多数生产的氯乙烯被用于制造聚氯乙烯（聚氯乙烯），这是一种广泛用于汽车零部件、包装产品、管道、建筑材料、家具和其他各种产品的材料。(2)
• Smaller amounts of vinyl chloride are used as a chemical intermediate and a solvent. (2,4)
少量的氯乙烯被用作化学中间体和溶剂。(2,4)
Sources and Potential Exposure来源和潜在暴露
• Ambient air concentrations of vinyl chloride are generally quite low, with exposure occurring from the discharge of exhaust gases from factories that manufacture or process vinyl chloride, or evaporation from areas where chemical wastes are stored. (2,3)
环境空气中氯乙烯的浓度通常都很低，暴露于从制造或加工氯乙烯的工厂排放的废气，或从化学废物储存的地区蒸发。(2,3)
• Vinyl chloride may enter finished drinking water from the flow of water through older PVC piping made before 1977, but a more recent study suggests that the extraction of vinyl chloride may diminish over time. Since 1977, product standards (NSF/ANSI 14 and
61) have controlled the release of vinyl chloride from PVC pipes. (5,6)
氯乙烯可能通过1977年以前制造的较旧的聚氯乙烯管道进入成品饮用水，但最近的一项研究表明，氯乙烯的提取可能会随着时间的推移而减少。自1977年起，产品标准(NSF/ANSI 14和61)已经控制了从聚氯乙烯管道中产生的氯乙烯的释放。(5,6)
• Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride may occur in those workers concerned with the production, use, transport, storage, and disposal of the chemical. (2,3)
与该化学品的生产、使用、运输、储存和处置有关的工人可能会职业性接触氯乙烯。
• Vinyl chloride has been detected in tobacco smoke. (2)
已在烟草烟雾中已检测到氯乙烯。(2)
Assessing Personal Exposure评估个人接触
• Vinyl chloride can be measured in urine, body tissue, and exhaled air but the tests are not reliable indicators of total exposure. (2)
氯乙烯可以在尿液、身体组织和呼出的空气中测量，但这些测试不是总暴露的可靠指标。(2)
Health Hazard Information健康危害信息
Acute Effects:急性影响
• Acute exposure of humans to high levels of vinyl chloride via inhalation has resulted in effects on the CNS, such as dizziness, drowsiness, headaches, and giddiness. (2,3)
人类通过吸入急性接触高水平的氯乙烯会对中枢神经系统产生影响，如头晕、嗜睡、头痛和头晕。(2,3)
• Acute exposure to high levels of vinyl chloride in animals has resulted in effects on the CNS, liver, kidney, and lungs. (2)
动物急性暴露于高水平的氯乙烯会对中枢神经系统、肝脏、肾脏和肺产生影响。(2)
• Tests involving acute exposure of mice have shown vinyl chloride to have high acute toxicity from inhalation exposure. (2,3)
涉及小鼠急性暴露的试验表明，氯乙烯吸入暴露具有很高的急性毒性。(2,3)
Rules & Implementation
Chronic Effects (Noncancer):慢性影响（非癌症）
• Liver damage may result in humans from chronic exposure to vinyl chloride through both inhalation and oral exposure. (2,3)
人类长期通过吸入和口服接触氯乙烯可能导致肝损伤。(2,3)
• A small percentage of individuals occupationally exposed to high levels of vinyl chloride in air have developed a set of symptoms termed "vinyl chloride disease," which is characterized by Raynaud's phenomenon (fingers blanch and numbness and discomfort are experienced upon exposure to the cold), changes in the bones at the end of the fingers, joint and muscle pain, and scleroderma-like skin changes (thickening of the skin, decreased elasticity, and slight edema). (2,3)
一小部分人职业暴露于高水平的氯乙烯空气发展一系列症状称为“氯乙烯病”，其特点是雷诺现象（手指在寒冷的环境中会出现发白、麻木和不适），手指末端骨骼变化，关节和肌肉疼痛，和硬皮病样的皮肤变化（皮肤增厚、弹性下降和轻微水肿）。(2,3)
• CNS effects (including dizziness, drowsiness, fatigue, headache, visual and/or hearing disturbances, memory loss, and sleep disturbances) as well as peripheral nervous system symptoms (peripheral neuropathy, tingling, numbness, weakness, and pain in fingers) have also been reported in workers exposed to vinyl chloride. (2)
中枢神经系统效应（包括头晕、嗜睡、疲劳、头痛、视觉和/或听力障碍、记忆丧失和睡眠障碍）以及周围神经系统症状（周围神经病变、刺痛、麻木、虚弱、手指疼痛）在接触氯乙烯的工人中也有报道。(2)
• Animal studies have reported effects on the liver, kidney, and CNS from chronic exposure to vinyl chloride. (2,3)
动物研究已经报道了长期接触氯乙烯对肝脏、肾脏和中枢神经系统的影响。（2,3)
• EPA has established a Reference Concentration (RfC) of 0.1 milligrams per cubic meter (0.1 mg/m3 ) based on effects on the liver in rats. The RfC is an estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of a continuous inhalation to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is likely to be without
appreciable risk of deleterious noncancer effects during a lifetime. It is not an estimator of risk but rather a reference point to gauge the potential for effects. At exposures increasingly greater than the RfC, the potential for adverse health effects increases.
Lifetime exposure above the RfC does not imply that an adverse effect would necessarily occur. (1)
EPA已确定参考浓度（RfC）为0.1毫克/立方米（0.1毫克/米3)，基于对大鼠肝脏的影响。RfC是对人类人口（包括敏感亚组）持续吸入的估计（不确定性可能跨越一个数量级）。在一生中产生有害的非癌症影响的明显风险。它不是风险的估计量，而是衡量潜在影响的参考点。当暴露量越来越大于RfC时，对健康的不利影响可能会增加。暴露在RfC以上的寿命并不意味着一定会发生不良影响。(1)
• EPA has established a Reference Dose (RfD) for vinyl chloride is 0.003 milligrams per kilogram body weight per day (mg/kg/d) based on liver toxicity in rats. (1)
EPA已经根据大鼠的肝脏毒性确定了氯乙烯的参考剂量（RfD）为每天0.003毫克/公斤体重（mg/kg/d）。(1)
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Resources
Reproductive/Developmental Effects :生殖/发育效应
• Several epidemiological studies have reported an association between vinyl chloride exposure in pregnant women and an increased incidence of birth defects; however, other studies have not supported these findings. (2,3)
几项流行病学研究报告了孕妇接触氯乙烯与出生缺陷发生率增加之间的联系；然而，其他研究并没有支持这些发现。(2,3)
• Several case reports involving worker exposures suggest that male sexual performance may be affected by vinyl chloride; however, these reports are limited by possible co- exposure to other chemicals and lack of exposure estimates. (2)
一些涉及工人接触的案例报告表明，男性的性行为可能受到氯乙烯的影响；然而，这些报告由于可能共同接触其他化学品和缺乏暴露估计而受到限制。(2)
• Testicular damage and decreased male fertility have been reported in rats exposed to vinyl chloride. (2)
有报道称，暴露于氯乙烯的大鼠的睾丸损伤和雄性生育能力下降。(2)
• Animal studies have reported decreased fetal weight and birth defects in the offspring of rats exposed to vinyl chloride through inhalation at levels that are also toxic to maternal animals. (2)
动物研究报告称，通过吸入氯乙烯暴露的大鼠后代的胎儿体重下降和出生缺陷，其水平对母体动物也有毒性。(2)
Cancer Risk:癌症风险
• Inhaled vinyl chloride has been shown to increase the risk of a rare form of liver cancer (angiosarcoma of the liver) in humans. (1,2,3)
吸入氯乙烯已被证明会增加人类患一种罕见的肝癌（肝血管肉瘤）的风险。(1,2,3)
• Animal studies have shown that vinyl chloride, via inhalation, increases the incidence of angiosarcoma of the liver and cancer of the liver. (1,2,3)
动物研究表明，通过吸入氯乙烯，会增加肝脏血管肉瘤和肝癌的发病率。(1,2,3)
• Several rat studies show a pronounced early-life susceptibility to the carcinogenic effect of vinyl chloride, i.e., early exposures are associated with higher liver cancer incidence than similar or much longer exposures that occur after maturity. (2)
一些大鼠研究表明，早期对氯乙烯的致癌作用。例如,与成熟后类似或更长时间的暴露相比，早期暴露与更高的肝癌发病率相关。(2)
• EPA has classified vinyl chloride as a known human carcinogen by the inhalation route of exposure. (1)
美国环境保护署已通过吸入接触途径将氯乙烯归类为已知的人类致癌物。(1)
• EPA uses mathematical models, based on animal studies, to estimate the probability of a person developing cancer from breathing air containing a specified concentration of a chemical. EPA has calculated inhalation unit risk estimates of 4.4 x 10-6 (µg/m3 )- 1 for exposure to vinyl chloride during adulthood and 8.8 × 10-6 (µg/m3 )- 1 for lifetime exposure. EPA estimates that, if an individual were to continuously breathe air containing vinyl chloride at an average of 0.11 ug/m3 (1.1 x 10-4 mg/m3 ) over his or her entire lifetime, that person would theoretically have no more than a one-in-a-million increased chance of developing cancer as a direct result of breathing air containing this chemical. Similarly, EPA estimates that continuously breathing air containing 1.1 µg/m3 (1.1 x 10-3 mg/m3 ) would result in not greater than a one-in-a-hundred thousand increased chance of developing cancer, and air containing 11 µg/m3 (1.1 x 10-2 mg/m3 ) would result in not greater than a one-in-ten thousand increased chance of developing cancer. For a detailed discussion of confidence in the potency estimates, please see IRIS.(1)
美国环境保护署使用基于动物研究的数学模型，来估计一个人因呼吸含有特定浓度的化学物质的空气而患癌症的概率。环保署计算出在成年期接触吸入氯乙烯单位风险估计为4.4×10-6(µg/m3)-1和终身暴露为8.8×10-6(µg/m3)-1。环保署估计，如果一个人在他或她的一生中持续呼吸含有平均0.11ug/m3的空气(1.1×10-4mg/m3)，理论上，由于呼吸含有这种化学物质的空气，他患癌症的几率不会超过百万分之一。同样，EPA估计，持续呼吸含有1.1µg/m3的空气(1.1×10-3mg/m3)将导致患癌症的几率增加不超过十万分之一，以及含有11µg/m的空气3(1.1×10-2mg/m3)将导致患癌症的几率增加十万分之一。有关对效价估计的信心的详细讨论，请参阅IRIS。(1)
• EPA has calculated an oral cancer slope factor of 7.2 x 10- 1 (mg/kg-day) for oral exposure to vinyl chloride during adulthood and an oral cancer slope factor of 1.4 (mg/kg-day) for lifetime exposure. (1)
EPA计算出成年期口腔氯乙烯暴露的口腔癌斜率为7.2×10-1（mg/kg-天），终生暴露的口腔癌斜率为1.4（mg/kg-天）。(1)
Physical Properties物理性质
• Vinyl chloride is a colorless, flammable gas with a mild, sweet odor. (4)
氯乙烯是一种无色、可燃的气体，具有温和、有甜味的气味。(4)
• The odor threshold for vinyl chloride ranges from 260 ppm to 4,000 ppm. (4)
氯乙烯的气味阈值范围为260 ppm至4,000 ppm。(4)
• The chemical formula for vinyl chloride is C2H3Cl and the molecular weight is 62.5 g/mol.
(4)
氯乙烯的化学式为C2H3Cl,其分子量为62.5g/mol。(4)
• The vapor pressure for vinyl chloride is 2,600 mm Hg at 25 °C, and it has a log octanol/water partition coefficient (log Kow ) of 1.36. (2)
在25℃下，氯乙烯的蒸汽压为2600mmHg，它的log辛醇/水的分配系数(log Kow)为1.36。(2)
Conversion Factors:转换因子
To convert concentrations in air (at 25 °C) from ppm to mg/m3: mg/m3 = (ppm) × (molecular weight of the compound)/(24.45). For vinyl chloride: 1 ppm = 2.6 mg/m3.
将空气中的浓度（在25℃下）从ppm转化为mg/m3: mg/m3=（ppm）×（化合物的分子量）/（24.45）。对于氯乙烯： 1 ppm = 2.6 mg/m3.
Health Data from Inhalation Exposure
吸入性暴露产生的健康数据
ACGIH TLV--American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists' threshold limit value expressed as a time-weighted average; the concentration of a substance to which most workers can be exposed without adverse effects.
美国政府和工业卫生师会议的阈值以时间加权平均值表示；大多数工人可以接触而没有不良影响的物质的浓度。
AIHA ERPG - American Industrial Hygiene Association's emergency response planning guidelines. ERPG 1 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly all individuals could be exposed up to one hour without experiencing other than mild transient adverse health effects or perceiving a clearly defined objectionable odor; ERPG 2 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly all individuals could be exposed up to one hour without experiencing or developing irreversible or other serious health effects that could impair their abilities to take protective action.
美国工业卫生协会的应急响应规划指南。ERPG 1是空气中的最大浓度，据信低于该浓度，几乎所有人都可能暴露在空气中长达一小时，而不会出现轻微的短暂不良健康影响或明显的不良气味；ERPG 2是空气中的最大浓度，据信低于该浓度，几乎所有人都可能暴露在空气中长达一小时，而不会经历或发展出不可逆或其他严重的健康影响，从而损害其采取保护措施的能力。
ATSDR MRL – An inhalation MRL is an estimate of the amount of a chemical a person can breathe each day without a detectable risk to health. MRLs are developed for health effects other than cancer. MRLs can be calculated for 3 different time periods of exposure to the chemical: acute (about 1 to 14 days), intermediate (from 15-364 days), and chronic (exposure for more than 364 days).
吸入MRL是一个人每天可以吸入而不会对健康造成可检测的风险的化学品量的估计值。MRL是为除癌症以外的健康影响而开发的。MRLs可以计算3个不同的化学品暴露时间段的最大残留限量：急性（约1至14天）、中等（15-364天）和慢性（暴露超过364天）。
CalEPA Acute REL – California EPA Office of Environmental and Human Health Assessment (OEHHA) acute reference exposure level is the concentration at or below which no adverse health effects are anticipated for a specified exposure duration.
加利福尼亚州环境和人类健康评估办公室（OEHHA）急性参考暴露水平是指在规定的暴露持续时间内，预期不会对健康产生不良影响的浓度。
OSHA PEL--Occupational Safety and Health Administration's permissible exposure limit expressed as a time-weighted average: the concentration of a substance to which most workers can be exposed without adverse effect averaged over a normal 8-h workday or a 40-h workweek.
职业安全与健康管理局的允许接触限值表示为时间加权平均值：大多数工人在正常8小时工作日或每周40小时工作内可以暴露而不会产生不良影响的物质的浓度。
OSHA PEL Ceiling -- Occupational Safety and Health Administration's permissible exposure limit expressed as a short-term exposure limit that should not be exceeded in a 15-minute time period.
职业安全与健康管理局的允许接触限值表示为15分钟内不得超过的短期接触限值。
RBC — Risk-based concentration.
基于风险的浓度
a Toxicity, Health, and Risk numbers are toxicological values from animal testing or risk
assessment values developed by EPA.
毒性、健康和风险值是EPA制定的动物试验或风险评估值的毒理学值。
b Regulatory numbers are values that have been incorporated in Government regulations, while advisory numbers are nonregulatory values provided by the Government or other groups as advice. OSHA numbers are regulatory, whereas ACGIH, NIOSH, and AIHA numbers are advisory.
监管数值是已纳入政府法规的数值，而咨询数值是政府或其他团体提供的作为建议的监管数值。OSHA数值为监管类，而ACGIH、NIOSH和AIHA数值为咨询类。
Summary updated in March 2020
摘要已于2020年3月更新
References参考文献
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) on Vinyl chloride. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC. Last revised 8/07/2000.http://www.epa.gov/iris
2. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Vinyl Chloride. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA. 2006.http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp20.pdf
3. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB, online database). National Toxicology Information Program, National Library of Medicine.
2020.http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/6338
4. Pohanish, R.P. Sittig’s Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens. 6th ed. Elsevier Inc. Oxford, UK and Waltham, MA USA. 2012.
5. Flournoy, R. L., Monroe, D., Chestnut, N., & Kumar, V. (1999). Health effects from vinyl chloride monomer leaching from pre-1977 PVC pipe. In Annual American Water Works Association Conference Proceedings (pp. 1211-1230).
6. Walter, R. K., Lin, P. H., Edwards, M., & Richardson, R. E. (2011). Investigation of factors affecting the accumulation of vinyl chloride in polyvinyl chloride piping used in drinking water distribution systems. Water research, 45(8), 2607-2615.
7. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). 2018 TLVs and BEIs. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents, Biological Exposure Indices. Cincinnati, OH. 2018.
8. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Occupational Safety and Health Standards, Toxic and Hazardous Substances. Code of Federal Regulations. 29 CFR 1910.1000. 2018.
https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_unique?p_table_name=STANDARDS& p_unique_file=1910_1017&p_anchor_name=
9. American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA). The AIHA 2018 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook. 2018.
10. California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA). Technical Supporting Document for Noncancer RELs, Appendix D2. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. 2008.
